Managing People Motivation Essay

Human resources are the Heart and soul of the organization. It is important that you should manage them effectively to optimize the full utilization of their talents. It is not enough to attract and retain talented people, you should motivate them to use their talents. Keeping an employee working at full potential is the ultimate goal of employee motivation. The employment contract provides a symbolic relationship between employers and employees. Employers expect employees to work hard, committed to the values of the organization, loyal and dependable, keep the work standards set by management, observe the rules and regulations and provide output in terms of product or services that are of good quality. Employees, on other hand that they should be rewarded well and equitably, treated fair and humanely, provide opportunities for career development and promotion given work that suits their abilities and have a happy and safe working environment. The success of the business is largely dependent upon the ability of the managers to motivate workers to achieve the high results. Managing people motivation is a must. Definition of Motivation Motivation is the internal condition that activates behavior and gives it direction; energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior. Motivation Helps explain why people do the things they doo. Understandin motivation is a major concern f all managers. History of Motivation The oldest technique used to motivate others is known today as the Carrot and Stick method. The name evolved from the stubbornness of the donkeys that could only be moved by taunting them with carrots. Early managers regularly offered economic â€Å"carrots† to entice people to work harder. This theory created misconception that money always motivated people to work harder. The awakening field of psychology was looking for a new way to motivate people, and n short time, managers would begin looking for psychologist for new methods of management. On 1923 Elton Mayo made clear the inadequacy of the pure carrot and stick motivation. Performing an experiment Philadelphia textile mill, Mayo concluded that the reason for the low was hat spinners had low opportunities to communicate with one another. Financial incentives failed to increase productivity. Mayo felt that the solution to his productivity problem was change the atmosphere of the workplace. The introduction of (2) ten minute break for the spinners produced immediate results. Morale improved and output increase tremendously. The spinners experiment confirmed Mayo belief that it was important for managers take into the account the psychology and well being of the worker. The Era of Industry Psychology Douglas McGregor was one of the few Americans n the 1950s who believed that the workers actually cared about doing good work. Building tradition with roots in the early work of pioneers such as Elton Mayo, He questioned a deeply held assumption that guided managerial efforts for centuries. He and the other psychologist held the view that it was unfair and bad psychology. They argued that people’s skills, attitudes, energy and commitment are resources that can make or unmake the enterprise. This new era of industrial psychology led to a sensitive understanding of people and their symbolic relationship with organization. 1. Organization exist to serve human needs rather than the reverse. 2. People and Organization need each other 3. When the fit between individual and system is poor, one or both suffer. 4. A good fit benefits both.

The End of Privacy

Daniel Trejo English 1301 Threatening Privacy Nowadays is hard or practically impossible for someone to keep something secret that you just do not want people to know because it is something personal. Anybody can access most or almost all of your information by simply searching it on the internet. It may not be something important to a lot of people because they do not really think deep about it but it is something that people should be concern about. Is it really â€Å"The End of Privacy? †? Or is there something we can do about it and stop the spread of our private information.Due to more people having technology like cell phone cameras, audio recorders, and other recording technologies it is easier for them to record private details about themselves. These people may later regret about doing such thing because what they recorded may end up on the internet for the whole world to see. Like what happened to the â€Å"Star Wars Kid,† who â€Å"videotaped himself waving around a golf-ball retriever while pretending it was a light stabber† (385). Insignificant things like this can destroy your reputation even your entire life.People suggest that if you find yourself in a situation like this there is pretty much nothing you can do about it. It would be better if people just would not record themselves doing such things to avoid the same thing happening to you. Social-networking sites and blogs also threat our privacy with people not even knowing that these web sites keep and spread their private information with others. Daniel J. Solove calls the people growing up today â€Å"Generation Google,† because all of their personal and private information will reside on the internet forever (386).Nowadays most people have their own web sites such as Facebook and Twitter making it easier for others to see and know more about your personal information. Web sites like these spread your personal information with other web sites without people even knowing it, thinking that their personal information is secure and only people they want may see it. I agree with what Solve thinks because anything that you post on the internet will stay there forever, having this in mind people should be very careful with what they post and do on the internet. On the other hand there is also the government that compromises privacy.For example, the National Security Agency â€Å"listens and examines the records of millions of telephone conversations every year† (386). There are also other government entities that keep records of personal information like births, marriages, employment, property ownership and more. These things are accessible to anyone by one simple search. Some would argue that the government has no right to do this, that they are violating personal information. You cannot even call someone and have a â€Å"private conversation† with them because you have these people listening to your conversation, which I find a lit tle bit creepy.Is there something we can do to prevent future spread of personal information? Some technologists and scholars say no. As Scott McNealy once said, â€Å"You already have zero privacy. Get over it† (387). Some suggest that nowadays it is practically impossible for someone to â€Å"start over,† reinvent their lives because everything is stored on the internet and you cannot simply delete it. There are some privacy laws that had been passed to try and protect people privacy but they do not really work. Due to privacy threats now cropping up, these laws have developed in a way that is often ineffective against these threats.But there are some things that people can do to prevent the spread of all of their private information but the most important thing is to know what you are posting on the internet. Once your information is on the internet anything can happen. People should be careful on what they put online because it can ruin your reputation. People nowa days based on your reputation can decide whether to make friends with you or businesses etc. Some suggest that this is the† death of privacy,† and that in the future it will grow into something bigger. You decide, is it really â€Å"The End of Privacy? †? Some will argue that.

George Orwell and William Golding Essay

Orwell and Golding use vastly different writing styles, but their message is the same – that mankind is hopeless. Discuss this statement with reference to both â€Å"Animal Farm† and â€Å"Lord of the Flies†. Since the beginning of time man has struggled to comprehend the difference between good and evil. Our ancestors spent their lives looking for truth, yet none could be found. Is there indeed a good of all goods and an evil of all evils? The two are so similar, and yet so different. The truth is, no one being is perfect, nor were we created to be. No one thing can be the source of all evil, or the source of all good. Yet man battles with himself, to determine what is right. But what, then, is truly right? If there is an evil, then Humans should be deemed to be the most evil of all creatures. We are manipulative, egotistic and dominating. We have the urge to be the dominating force in the universe. We strive for superiority and aim for domination. Yet are such feelings to be considered wrong? Cannot they just be classified as instincts, which many other animals have? No, for we are indeed intelligent creatures and instead of exercising our superiority we should be learning of others greatness. We, as indeed intelligent beings should stray from the common selfishness and anger. Yet, they seem to be much easier to arouse, harder to abolish. In his novel â€Å"Animal Farm†, George Orwell portrays the animals with human-like feelings and emotions. He uses satire to demonstrate the full extent of human emotion. Though the story is about animals, there are very few who think it is just that. The satire gives the story enough appeal to readers, but the message rings as solemn as ever. George Orwell uses little dialogue, but describes the characters and situations with great detail, paying attention to their characters and emotions. It is easier to understand all the happenings, because the characters are animals. At the same time, when one compares them to humans, a striking similarity can be found. The book makes one think, and it hurts when one realizes that the story in the book is not far from our reality. It is a sad reality; however, it is necessary to acknowledge this for one to be able to  overcome it. George Orwell’s message is that humankind is hopeless. Perhaps we are, but a lost cause, we are not. For it is books like these, which help one to understand our faults so that one can correct them as best as one can. We were not created to be perfect, but we were also not created to be dominating and superior. All beings on this planet are created to be equals. Humans have forgotten such principles of nature. Humans battle to overcome cruelty. However, while we believe we have done so, the cruel, dominating and never ending cycle begins again. The truth is we are prisoners of our own characters, and perhaps that can never change. William Golding, the author of â€Å"Lord of the Flies† uses fictional portrayal of human emotional conflict to reach the reader. He takes a situation, which could quite realistically occur in life, and elaborates upon it. He uses complex vocabulary and original sentence structure to show the complexity and variation of human emotions. He uses the little boys as characters in the story to prove a very valid point. The fact that such small children can turn on each other so rapidly is a sobering thought. Golding shows, that no matter how good the intentions are at first, our inner feelings of selfishness can overcome us very easily, especially in a critical situation The book makes the reader contemplate their own actions in such a situation. Whereas as no one can be brutally honest with themselves, it is possible to relate to others. That is what Golding is trying to create. Regardless of whether they planned to do so or not, they will think, and perhaps that may bring us one step closer to understanding a very important character – ourselves. Although their writing styles are prominently different, both George Orwell and William Golding show similar views on the human character. Their honest portrayal of humans as we are by nature leaves the reader thoughtful. So, are we then indeed bound for eternal struggle? Are we indeed as hopeless are the authors suggest? That is one question, which will not be answered with the advance in technology or by new scientific discoveries. We are our own  judges, but can we trust ourselves?

Emergent bilingual Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Emergent bilingual - Essay Example This group of individuals is born outside the country and speaks a different language other than English in their respective homes. They have insufficient mastery of English language that can help them meet the country’s standards and pass in any English test. (pg. 87 line 1-8) Garcia 2009 asserts that in most of today’s society, the most misunderstood issue in our education system is how the students who speak other languages that are not English related will be educated. Calling children this term of emergent bilinguals creates a positive characteristic as compared to the earlier term of English language learners that were used to refer to this group of individuals. This term does not suggest that these children have a limitation, but it suggests that they have the potential of developing bilingualism. These groups of children are noted to have an advantage over those children who only speaks English as their language, and they have difficulties in becoming bilinguals (pg. 322 lines 1-27). Bilinguals are known to can develop academic English if they are to be given the same opportunities on socioeducation as the other white children who are wealthy. A new curriculum and pedagogy that is equitable must adapt to the needs of emergent bilinguals. The inclusive curriculum that is challenging for emergent bilinguals must be adaptive ecologically as bilingual students, and biliteracy emerge. In early childhood, emergent bilingual at one point must have been given the opportunity to interact with caring adults and apart from speaking their home languages; they do understand their cultural practices. These adults also guided their bilingual development through providing the children with opportunities to practice how to speak and use English language. The language that the child is to use must occur in the home of the child’s language (GarciÃŒ a & Kleifgen,

Richard Smallwood Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Richard Smallwood - Research Paper Example Smallwood started his career as a musician in 1982. Young artist gained popularity very quickly. Already at the beginning of 1980’s Smallwood became one of the most famous and successful gospel musicians. His first project was called The Richard Smallwood Singers. This first album had a success and the next, called Psalms, was even nominated for a Grammy. â€Å"I wanted to write a complete project with songs that dealt with the promises found in His Word so that I could encourage and remind us that God is still in control. Soon after, I began dreaming songs. I have dreamed a few songs before, but I can count the times on one hand that I remembered what I had dreamed after I had awaken. But this time, not only could I remember what I had dreamed but sometimes more than one song would come at the same time and I could barely keep up with them. I knew that God was saying something that we all needed to hear† (Smallwood). The next album was called Textures. It also had a great success and nominated and won. Many famous musicians were interested in his music and recorded it, Yolanda Adams, Karen Clark-Sheard, Destiny's Child are among them. Swallowed accompanied many great singers such as Leontyne Price. The current group of Richard Smallwood is called Vision, he created many great projects with it. After finishing his Master’s degree in 2004, the musician was invited to the Gospel Music Hall of Fame. Richard Smallwood’s life concert was recorded at the Manhattan Center in New York† (Ladywoo Ministry of Music").

Campus issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Campus issue - Essay Example This assignment therefore discusses the problems that exists in Pepperdine University’s dining places and provides solutions to these problems. One day I had an interesting conversation with my friend Steve Wang who loved sports very much. He said to me, â€Å"After playing basketball with my friends, I become too tired to go upstairs to the Cafe or HAWC. Even though there is a food stand at the FF, the foods served there have lots of calories and students have to queue for long.† Another friend, Yu Duan, says â€Å"After a long sporting activity I need a nearby place to relax. The new cafe offers some nutritious foods such as chicken salad, fruits, and yogurt. However, these foods are high in calories and for sportspeople like us they are detrimental for our health.† From the sentiments of my two friends, it is clear that the University does not have enough food outlets to cater for the variant needs of students. A solution to this would be to build more food joints that would meet the need of different students especially the sportspeople. Breakfast offered in the Cafe has never changed. Omelets, sandwiches and chicken rolls have always been the order of the day. Most students have no interests in such unvaried breakfast menus offered every morning. As a result, most of the students forgo breakfast in the morning. I at one time overheard a student say, â€Å"Breakfast meals in these places are too monotonous. I am automatically full when I think of having breakfast here.† Therefore, I strongly suggest that the administration should direct the personnel in charge to vary the meals and have different meals for every morning. Although some students do not have meals in campus during the weekends, some of us who eat in school during weekends find the meals awful. Freshmen who do not have cars find it particularly difficult to drive downtown and enjoy the delicious foods in restaurants. My friend, Yu Duan, once made an interesting comment. He said, â€Å"The

Mathematical Concepts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mathematical Concepts - Essay Example This paper seeks to discuss mathematical concepts of a course. The paper will offer a summary of the concepts learnt in the course, relevance of the concepts to the characteristics of a mathematics teacher as well as analysis of the influence of the learnt concepts on my personal ideas and philosophy of teaching. Summary of the major mathematical concepts One of the mathematical concepts discussed in the course is problem solving. This concept is described as an approach towards finding a solution to a problem. The concept of problem solving involves a number of steps that starts from understanding the problem at hand, developing a strategy, exploring any applicable pattern and finally using logic to ascertain the nature of the solution. Strategy to problem solving, according to Billstein, Libeskind and Lott, involves a series of steps that include â€Å"understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back† over the solution (Billstein, Libeskind and Lott, 2010, p. 4). In order to understand a problem, it is necessary to be able to acculturate and paraphrase the problem before identifying the next course of action. The necessary information in the problem that can be used in its solution is then extracted and the unknown that is to be solved identified (Billstein, Libeskind and Lott, 2010) ... As an approach to describing numbers through notations, numeration systems include Hindu Arabic system and Tally system among others. The concept of sets on the other hand involves definition of sets and set operations such as unions and intersections. The course also covers concepts of operation of whole numbers that includes addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division with stepwise procedures for carrying out the operations. The course also described the concept of algebra that covers variables, equations, and functions. Variables refer symbols that can take more than one values. In numerical concepts, a variable can represent more that one number or quantities and is represented using a letter. Algebraic equations are on the other hand used to represent values, either algebraic or a combination of both algebraic and numerical, which are assumed to have similar magnitudes. Equations can then be used to solve for exact values of unknowns in given problems. Relationship betwe en variables is further explored through functions (Billstein, Libeskind and Lott, 2010). Like operations of whole numbers, the course covers basic rules in operation of decimal numbers and fractions. It explores algorithms of basic operations, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, with respect to decimals and fractions. The final set of mathematical concepts, as covered by the course includes proportions, ratios, and percentages. The basis of ratios, percentages, and proportions as expression of relationship between variables, and understanding of their concepts is important in solving real life problems such as interest and interest rates among other practical relationships (Billstein, Libeskind and Lott, 2010) Relevance of the learnt

Financial Management - Cool Moose Creamery Essay

Financial Management - Cool Moose Creamery - Essay Example The report analyses whether starting a new franchise of Cool Moose Creamery would be feasible or not and what opportunities and threats might be considered while starting this venture. The report has been divided into two parts; the first part of the reports highlights and discusses different elements that could influence the decision whether to start a new venture or not and the other part of the report analyses the feasibility of starting a new venture by using different project appraisal techniques. The first part of would include more of qualitative data however the quantitative data and all the calculations have been included in the second part. Important Elements to Consider Starting a new venture is the phase when the management of the business has to consider important elements and factors that could influence the operations and success of the new firm. By identifying these important elements, the managers are able to identify factors that could influence the business and the n take steps to minimize the impact of these steps. Such elements are also important for the management as they provide areas that the management should look at and be careful of while starting a new venture (Dunung, 2010). Some of the most important elements that the management has to consider while starting a new venture are as follows: Market Size and potential of the market One of the important elements that have been considered before starting a new venture is the market size and the potential of the market. Market size is basically defined as the total number of potential customers that the firm for whom the firm would be offering products or services. Market potential basically refers to the potential or possibility of the consumers buying the products or services of the firm. If the market has high potential but the size is very limited and starting a business requires high investment, then it is not feasible to go ahead with such a venture. However, if the market size is sm all and has potential in it but requires low investment then venture can be started as despite of low market size firm would be able to capitalise the market. Therefore it is important for the management to consider and analyse the market size and the potential of the market along with the benefits that would be delivered by the venture and by comparing these elements, the final decision should be made. Product and its uniqueness The other important element that

Merger between Huge Co. and Computers Co Case Study

Merger between Huge Co. and Computers Co - Case Study Example Both sides worry about the merging of benefits, both afraid that their benefits they've gotten accustomed to will be replaced by the other's benefit program. Both programs have advantages and disadvantages. Huge Co. offers a program that aims for the long term needs of its employees. Their program ensures the employees' financial stability after retirement. Their program also takes care of the employees' health, as well as the company's budget. The only possible down side to Huge Co.'s benefits program is the management's lack of feedback on their employees' satisfaction with the said program. Computers Co.'s benefits program is very flexible but it is flexible to the point that it allows its employees to only think of their short term needs. Their program is high on the satisfaction of their employees but also high on the company's budget. Taking all good and bad things into account, a possible compromise may be reached. Since both companies individually have good and bad sides to their benefits programs, the best program can be made out of the good parts in both of them. The two companies operate with a "cafeteria plan," as they call it, which is good for the employees so that they can fit the benefits to what they truly need. This is even more applicable considering the age differences in the employees, which translates to the differences in their priorities in life.

Evaluating my own teaching strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Evaluating my own teaching strategy - Essay Example Linguistic differences and varying cultural backgrounds also pose a problem as far as communication and learning are concerned, since many students do not understand what they are reading, being unaware of he context within which the reading exercise is set. Physical education is one area where the sheer joy and energy expended on the field could form the framework within which learning activity could be enhanced. Metacognition: or thinking about the cognitive process. This is a strategy that is particularly helpful for students who are low achievers and need to become more aware before they start learning. I find it very relevant for my physical education classes, where I would therefore first help my students to become aware of their own bodies in relation to others and the manner in which reacts to gravity. This will make them aware of their own strengths and improve their performance when I begin to actually teach gym and games. Student self selected reading: By encouraging stude nts to discover which physical activities really interest them, they would be better equipped to join up and excel in physical activities of their choice. They could also read more about the athletes and activities that interest them and thereby develop a wider field of knowledge regarding physical activities. Most of the activities could also be assigned as homework, since their interest is likely to propel them into active practice and honing of their physical activity skills. Understanding context texts independently

Comment Paper on Death of a Salesman Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Comment Paper on Death of a Salesman - Essay Example Miller’s own early life was eerily similar to that of what the reader is made aware of Willy Loman’s life. For instance, Miller grew up in an upper-middle class neighborhood in New York City; the son of Polish Jewish immigrants. Miller’s own father was a successful businessman in a textile mill; which eventually employed 400 individuals. This successful lifestyle enabled the family to enjoy the luxuries of having a new car at a time when cars were still a novelty, attending private schools, and enjoying the occasional vacation. However, the good times would not last as the crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression shattered the family’s bliss. Miller’s father, out of work and out of options sold their home and moved to Gravesend, New York. It was during this time that young Arthur Miller was forced to take a bread route ever morning before school; delivering bread via his bicycle as a means to keep the family afloat. Although it is easy to say that such an experience doubtless had an effect on how Arthur Miller viewed the plight of the average man, this author would go a step further and claim that the hard times and difficult experiences that young Arthur Miller endured during the great depression and his family’s subsequent fall from wealth are autobiographically sketched in his play â€Å"Death of a Salesman†. If one adopts this autobiographical approach to â€Å"Death of a Salesman†, many of the intrinsic lessons and interplay that exists between the family members and Willy Loman help to show the fleeting nature of success and the cold, cruel reality of pervasive failure that crushes the spirit of the entire family. As a means of showing this dichotomy, Willy Loman states, â€Å"Work a lifetime to pay off a house. You finally own it, and there’s nobody to live in it† (Miller 15). Rather than simply relating to the reader how difficult success is to achieve, Miller works to add a nuanced level of understanding which shows that even if success is achieved – what merit does it have in and of itself? The fleeting nature of success as defined by Loman in the above passage profoundly reflects the eventualities that effected Arthur Miller’s own young life with respect to the brief success enjoyed and then snatched away by the Great Depression. Further, strong elements of the Depression Era mentality peak through at various points of Arthur Miller’s play. When speaking with his wife Linda, Willy blurts out, â€Å"Once in my life I’d like to own something that isn’t broken already† (Miller 73). The rage and frustration at being perennially stuck with second best, having to live on the fringes of society, living with inferior products as a result of being poor is seen as a central theme throughout the play. More than merely representing poverty and hardship as the life of a salesman, this form of life alteration to deal wit h the gnawing pangs of poverty shows an author who is all too familiar with such an eventuality. Further, due to the aforementioned fact that Miller himself had to take a bread right prior to school every morning shows the extent to which the author had to sacrifice of himself as a means of helping to keep his own family sheltered, clothed, fed, and warm during a similarly trying time. However, more than being allegorical of the plight of the poor, the author

Carl Robbins Case Study Essay Example for Free

Carl Robbins Case Study Essay Carl Robins is a new campus recruiter who is on the fast track to success. However, as a new employee, he is not fully informed on processes of the company. From my analysis, I conclude that Carl Robbins is not organized and did not assemble training plan for the new recruits. New employees can acquire a situation too deep and too fast. It takes at least six months to a year for someone in a new position to understand his or her role within a company. Carl Robins is doing too much too fast. A plan needs to be in place and reviewed before any new trainees were hired. Background  Carl Robins, a new recruiter with ABC, Inc., has a dilemma. Because a training plan was not put in place and the proper research was not done, Carl runs the risk of an unsuccessful orientation. Carl’s position has the role of coordinating tasks and gathering information for new people coming to the company. If the process is unsuccessful, it will leave a bad impression with not only Monica Carrolls, Operations Supervisor, but the new trainees as well. As the coordinator, Carl has not put in the research required to obtain the information needed for the trainees. Key Problems  Several problems exist for Carl Robins. The first issue is that he is six months into his position and is not aware of certain policies and procedures within ABC, Inc. The next issue is that a training plan does not exist for Carl to follow to make sure trainees meet the requirements. Last, being new to his position Carl did not do the research or ask questions on what needed to be done. He just assumed. An action plan or schedule should be active before the new trainees were hired. Carl did not prepare for the orientation; he runs the risk of not possessing the space or materials to conduct the orientation. Alternatives  Preparing a group of people in a new environment to do a job takes time and planning. In my analysis I have found several alternatives to solve Carl’s problem. First Carl needs to confront his supervisor and explain that he is not prepared and what went wrong. At that time, Monica and he can work together to get the manuals and booklets prepares, drug tests and physicals scheduled, and talk to technology services to work out an agreement for access to the training room. Carl will have to work diligently to contact the trainees and update them on the new information. If all goes well, the orientation will be successful. The second route would be to create a list of tasks that need to be completed for the training in order of importance and due dates. The next step would be to meet with the operations supervisor to get her input, and ask any questions he may not know the answers to. Asking questions and staying organized leaves little room for error. Once Carl has met with his supervisor, he should keep track of what tasks are complete and when completed. Carl should also keep the trainees informed of any issues and forecast any problems that arise. Reccomendations  Carl Robins is a new employee eager to prove himself. Carl has a great deal of confidence but he let it get in the way of his responsibilities. I would recommend my second alternative, which requires Carl Robins to make a list of all tasks that need to be completed and keep his supervisor involved throughout the process. This way Carl can get insight to policies and procedures of the company. The supervisor may also be able to forecast any problems that may arise with his training plan from her experiences. I would also recommend that Carl practice time management and communication skills to help him learn how to approach situations such as the current one. In any organization there are individuals who like Carl, are just starting out and believe they can conquer the world. Some people let their confidence level get in the way of success. Carl Robbins has a responsibility to the new trainees to prepare them to do a job. Because this is his first recruitment effort, Carl is already not meeting expectations. Anyone in a recruiter position should be knowledgeable and have an action plan. If my recommendations are put into action, Carl Robins will lead a successful orientation.

Heritage Of Christianity In Ethiopia Theology Religion Essay

Heritage Of Christianity In Ethiopia Theology Religion Essay Christianity and Islam have coexisted in Ethiopia since the celebrated first migration in the formative period of Islam fourteen-hundred years ago. Ethiopia has overcome many attempts in the past to overthrow this coexistence, but modern Ethiopia remains a nation which prides itself on a tradition of religious tolerance between its populations of Christian, Muslim and Jewish citizens. This delicate balance however, is facing a threat by interference from outside interests attempting to establish control in the Horn of Africa. These outsiders are using religious non-governmental organizations such as evangelical Christian missionaries and Wahabist Muslim dawahs to influence the population against the traditional ruling Coptic Church. Heritage of Christianity in Ethiopia The Judeo-Christian history of Ethiopia goes back to the time of Israels King Solomon in the tenth century BCE. The Holy Bible (First Kings) records that the Queen of Sheba (modern Ethiopia), visited King Solomon. The Ethiopian epic Kebra Nagast records that she bore a son by Solomon, Menelik, who is said to have brought the Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia. This was the beginning of the Solomonid Dynasty of Ethiopia. The Ethiopian Coptic Orthodox Tewahedo Church (hereafter referred to as the Coptic Church) claims the Ark still resides in the Chapel of the Tablet in the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion in the town of Axum, Ethiopia (Raffaele, 2007). Axum is also the name of the first Christian kingdom of Ethiopia, which was the first of any world nation to adopt Christianity as the official state religion. The Coptics relate that Christianity was first brought to Ethiopia by an Ethiopian royal official who was converted by Phillip the Evangelist, one of the first seven deacons of Christianity. In the fourth century, the Pope of the Coptic Church in Alexandria appointed Frumentius as the first Archbishop of Axum and Axum became officially a Christian nation. It should be noted that before this time the Coptic Church based in Alexandria (also known as the Oriental Orthodox) had already split off from what would become the Catholic churches and the Eastern Orthodox churches. This split was due to difference in opinion on the nature of the Christ (Gascoigne, From 2001, ongoing). This difference of opinion continues to alienate the Coptics from the rest of Christianity to this day, as will be seen. Muslim Heritage in Ethiopia In the year 613, the Companions and Family of the Prophet Mohammad (pbuh) were being persecuted by the Qurayshi clan in Mecca. One of the leading Companions was an Ethiopian slave. The Ethiopian king at this time was known to be a just leader and the Prophet was convinced that his followers would be safest in a Christian country where the people followed the scriptures of the Book rather than among the pagan tribes of Arabia. The Prophet ordered his Companions to migrate (hijra) to Ethiopia for their safety. During the six years the Companions stayed in Ethiopia, many Ethiopians converted to the new religion of Islam. In the sixth year of the first hijirat, a nephew of the Prophet, Amir ibn Umayya visited Ethiopia with an invitation to Negus, the king of Ethiopia to accept Islam. Amir was warmly received by Negus, who against the will of the rest of the royal family and the Coptic Church, converted to Islam. The royal family revolted against Negus and when Negus died, the Prophet off ered the first ever in-absentia funeral prayer (Salatul Ghaib) in his honor (Mohammed, 2012). Islam had established itself in Ethiopia, but Ethiopia would remain officially a Christian nation. The Solomonid Dynasty would continue to reign until the Marxist revolution of 1974 and the royal position was that there were no Muslim Ethiopians. The position of the royal family was that Muslim Ethiopians were foreigners living in the country (The First Hijrah Foundation (FHF), 2012). This foreigner label on Muslim Ethiopians is in part strengthened by ethnic and racial divisions within Ethiopia. Racial and Ethnic Federalism Ethiopia is currently divided into ethnically-based autonomous federal regions. For example, the Somali ethnic region is the most populous and takes up roughly the eastern third of the country with its population 97% ethnically Somali. The Somali people are a Cushitic (black African) ethnic group and predominately Muslim (98%). The next most populous region is Oromo. The Oromo are also a Cushitic ethnic group whose population is religiously divided between predominately Muslim in the eastern portion of the region and evangelical protestant (referred to as Penty) Christian in the west. The Amhara ethnic group is Semitic (like the Hebrew and Arabs) and lives in the highland region of Amhara (Population Census Commission, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2008). The royal family of Ethiopia was of Amharic ethnicity and this ethnic group still maintains dominance in the Ethiopian federal government. The Amharic people are predominately Coptic and the Coptic Church in Ethiopia is p rimarily led by Amharics. This historical dominance of the Amharic people over the other ethnicities of the region has been the cause for some of the conflict in the region that to outsiders may appear to be simply religiously based. Past Religious Conflicts With the emergence and rapid growth of Islam in the sixth century, Ethiopia quickly became an isolated Island of Christendom in a Sea of Islam (Gascoigne, From 2001, ongoing). Although geographically isolated, Ethiopia maintained strong ties to the rest of Christendom. The Ethiopian Patriarch has always been appointed by the Oriental Orthodox Pope in Alexandria and monks from the Ethiopian Coptic Church maintain the unique right of being co-custodians of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. By the end of the thirteenth century, Ethiopia was the only non-Muslim state in northern Africa. During the fifteenth century, Ethiopian monks from Jerusalem attempted to attend the Council of Florence to discuss the re-unification of the Christian Churches. They were denied entry to the council by both the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches because of the theological differences which had caused them to split off originally. The presence of the Ethiopian monks at Florence did, however, serve to attract the attention of Rome resulting in a Jesuit mission being sent to Ethiopia. This Jesuit presence would last nearly two hundred years and ultimately result in the Ethiopian king, Susenyos, renouncing the Coptic faith as heresy and adopting the Roman Catholic faith. After the departure of the Jesuits, Susenyos succumbed to pressure and reverted back to the Coptic faith. During the sixteenth century when the Jesuit presence was at its strongest, Ethiopia was also facing jihads from the Muslims. The first jihad was from the Sultan Graà ± (aka Ahmad ibn Ibrahim) who had based his sultanate in Harar. His decision to declare holy war on Ethiopia was due in part to marginalization and discrimination against the Muslims influenced in part by the Jesuit missionaries. Graà ± moved an army of Somalis west and destroyed a great many of the Christian shrines and holy places (Gascoigne, From 2001, ongoing). In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries Ethiopia fought to maintain its independence from the colonial powers of Portugal and Italy. The Ethiopian emperor, Haile Selassie, led in the formation of the League of Nations and the Organization of African Unity. After the second world war, Ethiopia backed by the United States, who was looking for a possible Red Sea port annexed Eritrea. Eritrean opinion was divided on this between Christians who were pro-unification and Muslims who were for Eritrean independence. This led to nearly 40 years of conflict. As part of the larger global cold war, a Marxist element emerged in Eritrea. This Marxist element eventually performed a military coup against the royal family, deposing Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974. A period of instability prevailed until 1991 when the current constitution was affirmed and Eritrea was granted independence in 1993. From 1991 until 2012, Ethiopia was under the control of the Prime Minister Meles Zenawi. Occasional wars continued to break out along Ethiopias borders and the conflicts would spill over into the neighboring countries of Somalia and Sudan. Meles supported, and was supported by, the Coptics and the Amharic population. Although no longer in power by law, the Coptics and the Amharic peoples still hold much influence. Meles support of the Coptics and marginalization of the Muslims and Penties is part of the cause of recent violence in the country (Heinlein, 2012). Recent Events On the second of March, 2011 in Asendabo, a Penty allegedly desecrated the Koran. It was believed by the Ethiopian Government that the Kawarja Muslim sect used this alleged act to incite a riot that resulted in up to 10,000 Christians fleeing the area. Approximately fifty churches and many Christian homes were burned to the ground. This was the largest in a series of Muslim attacks against Christians, especially Penties in Muslim dominated regions. In November of 2010, Christian residents of Besheno found warnings nailed to their doors to convert, leave the city, or be killed. On the twenty-sixth of February, 2011, a Muslim mob attacked seventeed Penty college students with rods and sticks for attempting to distribute Bibles in a Muslim village (Macedo, 2011). Although freedom of religion is guaranteed in the Ethiopian constitution, each autonomous region may interpret that freedom in its own way. In November of 2011, the Ethiopian Government identified the Kawarja sect with Al-Qaeda and expressed concern over a growing force of Wahhabi Muslims promoting violence against moderate Muslims and Christians with the aim of making Ethiopia an Islamic country governed by Sharia law. Wahabist teachings would upset the balance between Christians and Muslims and challenge United States interests in the region as well. The Ethiopian Government responded by backing a competing Muslim sect, Al-Ahbash. Al-Ahbash was founded by an Ethiopian and is very anti-Wahabi/Salafi in its beliefs, going so far as to declare takfir against them (declaring the Wahabi/Salafi as heretics). The Ethiopian Government appointed an Islamic Affairs Supreme Council (IASC) that was Ahbash heavy with no representatives from the Wahabi or Salafi sects. This council seeks to create Ahabash based Islamic schools in Ethiopia so that Ethiopians will not have to go to Arabic countries to learn to become Imams (Fentaw, 20 12). With the death of Prime Minister Meles Zenawi in August of 2012, some Ethiopian Christians and Muslims are hoping for unity in the future. Ethiopian college students of both Christian and Muslim faiths joined together to found the group Concerned Ethiopian Students to work toward peace. When Egypt and Libya saw riots in September of 2012 because of the film Innocence of Muslims produced by Coptic Christians living in the United States, Coptic leaders were quick to denounce the film. On the fifth of November, 2012, the new Pope of the Oriental Orthodox Communion was elected and took his place ruling the Coptic Church in Alexandria. The next day he issued a statement stating that the Coptic Church has no political role, but that he fears Sharia law will threaten the religious freedom and safety of the Christian community (Schiava, 2012). On the seventh of November, 2012, the Ethiopian Government announced the newly elected members of the IASC. The government hopes the IASC can bring pe ace within the Muslim community (VanDerWolf, 2012). Muslims, especially Wahabis, had been protesting the elections for months. The Wahabis had requested the elections be held in mosques instead of public meeting halls. The Wahabi fear is that the elections were influenced by the government which they say is trying to ban the Wahabi sect and promote Ahbash (Heinlein, 2012). More than one hundred Muslims are being held on terrorism charges for the protests (VanDerWolf, 2012). The Way Ahead for United States Interests The United States involvement in the Horn of Africa, particularly Ethiopia sits in the same delicate situation as the Coptic Church. With the United States alliance with the Amharic ruling parties of Ethiopia, any move by the government against Islam or any sect of Islam, such as Wahabi, is seen by the radical Muslims as an act backed by or even directed by the United States and Israel (The First Hijrah Foundation (FHF), 2012). The evangelism of the Penty churches into Muslim and Coptic areas is seen by some as interference from the United States, though through such entities as the Ku Klux Klan (comment to (CBS News, 2012). While this may seem ridiculous, it conveys the fear that is bred in the minds of some Ethiopian Muslims. The Ethiopian Coptics may be facing the greatest struggle in their nearly two-thousand year history. If an Islamist faction gains control of the nation, many will flee the country much as most Christians have fled from Iraq and most recently Egypt. Any move by the United States government or American based organizations to aid the Christians in Ethiopia will only strengthen the resolve of the Islamist sects to eliminate the Christian powerbase. Perhaps they may find peace in true democracy in the post-Zenawi era.

Should We Continue To Commemorate Wars? :: essays research papers

Should we continue to commemorate wars? Discuss with reference to specific examples. Throughout the course of this essay I will be discussing whether or not we should continue to commemorate wars, I will be mainly referring to Armistice Day and Remembrance Sunday as my examples because these are the biggest commemorations for any of the wars in British history. Among all of the ceremonies and silences that occur throughout the year, there is still a tendency for people to forget what they are commemorating and remembering. When we commemorate wars, for example on remembrance weekend, we are remembering tens of thousands of people who died defending the country against evil; we also remember the people who these people loved and the loss that they encountered. We commemorate Armistice Day because it is 80 years to the day since World War One ended and the two-minute silence is to commemorate this. The silence, says the Royal British Legion, is "to remember the brave men and women who fought so courageously and with such sacrifice to secure the freedom which you and I enjoy today". On Remembrance Sunday there is another two minutes silence at eleven o’clock. The poppies worn and laid are a mark of respect for those who have died in wars everywhere in our name. Also a march past by veterans from wars symbolises the suffering and pain that goes on everywhere today and that is endured by some many. Commemoration is a time to reflect on the fact that our entire way of life is predicated on the sacrifices and courage of those that came before us and fought for our respective nations. It takes more courage than most of us can imagine risking ones life for an intangible goal such as victory for a nation. It has long been held that we should honour our past soldiers, to that honour I say that we should add thanks and deference. I think that commemorations should be an opportunity for all people but especially the young to thank and be grateful for the service of the forces and civilians during both the world wars. The sacrifices made and that are still having to be lived with by some should never be forgotten These commemorations means to me a time when the memories of those soldiers who gave their lives for the causes of peace are appreciated by people who have benefited from this.

Pips Growth in Great Expectations :: Great Expectations Essays

Through the novel Great Expectations, it is seen that Pip’s personalities change. He seemed to be immature at the start but in the end he turned out much different and yet also the same. It seems to me that he changed because of those surrounding him and the influence they had on him. The most influential characters were Estella and the Magwitch. Pip at first was very uneducated and had not a clue of his social class or that there even was a social class, so he was content with what he had. As his life went on he met new people from both higher and lower social classes. From here his satisfaction turned to greed and shame, as he longed to be better educated. Pip does learn later on that having money and power and being in the high social class is not as important as having true friends, even if they are lower class. One of the first influential people around him was Estella. She always insulted Pip, yet he fell in love with her. Of course, over time he started to feel ashamed of himself, and of his roots, and he then longed to be a gentleman. Estella overall was a very poor influence on Pip because she was never supportive of him. Pip should have been around people that lifted him up and encouraged him to tell him what he needed to hear. The second is when Pip came across a convict that forced him to steal food from his sister. It is uncovered later that the convict is Magwitch, who for years he had been secretly saving money for him. When Pip is given this money he is finally able to live a gentleman’s lifestyle. This is a great influence given from the Magwitch. However, this only has a physical influence on Pip. Even though Magwitch caused Pip to feel guilty for stealing food, he came back and proved himself a noble character. When Pip sees that his helper was a convict, he realizes that the money he got was a man of a lower social class than himself. This made him feel inferior. But as time went on Pip got to know Magwitch better, he began to see that even people of the lower class can be gentlemen and friendly. Pip's Growth in Great Expectations :: Great Expectations Essays Through the novel Great Expectations, it is seen that Pip’s personalities change. He seemed to be immature at the start but in the end he turned out much different and yet also the same. It seems to me that he changed because of those surrounding him and the influence they had on him. The most influential characters were Estella and the Magwitch. Pip at first was very uneducated and had not a clue of his social class or that there even was a social class, so he was content with what he had. As his life went on he met new people from both higher and lower social classes. From here his satisfaction turned to greed and shame, as he longed to be better educated. Pip does learn later on that having money and power and being in the high social class is not as important as having true friends, even if they are lower class. One of the first influential people around him was Estella. She always insulted Pip, yet he fell in love with her. Of course, over time he started to feel ashamed of himself, and of his roots, and he then longed to be a gentleman. Estella overall was a very poor influence on Pip because she was never supportive of him. Pip should have been around people that lifted him up and encouraged him to tell him what he needed to hear. The second is when Pip came across a convict that forced him to steal food from his sister. It is uncovered later that the convict is Magwitch, who for years he had been secretly saving money for him. When Pip is given this money he is finally able to live a gentleman’s lifestyle. This is a great influence given from the Magwitch. However, this only has a physical influence on Pip. Even though Magwitch caused Pip to feel guilty for stealing food, he came back and proved himself a noble character. When Pip sees that his helper was a convict, he realizes that the money he got was a man of a lower social class than himself. This made him feel inferior. But as time went on Pip got to know Magwitch better, he began to see that even people of the lower class can be gentlemen and friendly.

Democracy in Civil Disobedience, Slavery in Massachusetts, Benito Ceren

The Oppression of Democracy Exposed in Civil Disobedience, Slavery in Massachusetts, Benito Cereno and Bartleby the Scrivener America has long been recognized as a democratic nation, a nation operating under the will of the people. The forefathers of America fought incessantly against British tyranny to start anew in a land of freedom and opportunity. Because America revived the ancient Greek ideology of democracy, the nation was set apart from the rest of the world and was revered for the freedom and justice it provided its people. However, not everyone thinks that American democracy means freedom and liberty. On the contrary, writers such as Henry David Thoreau in "Civil Disobedience" and "Slavery in Massachusetts," along with Herman Melville in "Benito Cereno" and "Bartleby the Scrivener," suggest that democracy can actually oppress and restrict the individual. In "Civil Disobedience," Thoreau criticizes the American government for its democratic nature, namely, the idea of majority ruling. Like earlier transcendentalists, such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Thoreau believes in the importance of the individual. In a society where there are many individuals with conflicting perceptions and beliefs, Emerson chooses passivity and isolation to avoid conflict with others. However, unlike Emerson, Thoreau rejects passivity and challenges his readers to stand up against the government that focuses on majorities over individuals. Thoreau argues that when power is in the hands of the people, the majority rules, "not because they are most likely to be in the right, nor because this seems fairest to the minority, but because they are physically the strongest" (Thoreau 64). Thoreau portrays this very fundamental element of democracy, w... ...t the tyrannical majority and take whatever measures necessary, but Melville simply exposes the repressive nature of democracy and leaves it at that. However, Melville does point out, through "Benito Cereno" and "Bartleby, the Scrivener," that simply rebelling against democracy, as Thoreau proposes, is not the answer. Perhaps Melville does not have a solution, just as Bartleby did not. Nonetheless, to both writers, democracy continues to be a despotic institution. Works Cited and Consulted: Melville, Herman. Bartleby and Benito Cereno. Dover Publications, Inc. New York. 1993. Thoreau, Henry D. "Slavery in Massachusetts." Reform Papers. Ed. Wendell Glick. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1973. 91-109.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ----- "Civil Disobedience" from A World of Ideas - Essential Readings for College Readers, Lee A. Jacobus, Bedford Books, 1998, 1849(123 -146)

The Ideal Role for Business in Society

The Ideal Role for Business in Society Introduction Business has been going along since long before money, insurance plans, and global warming were even a glimmer in someone’s mind. The days of trading your skill for what you needed are still present today, but in a much different realm. Most people do not rely on their neighbor to grow vegetables for their family to eat while they herd the sheep. Disposing of chemicals and building a greener society were not a worry on the mind of anyone many moons ago. It has changed and businesses can overlook people’s personal issues, individual need, and impact on the environment. The ideal role for business in society is to treat their employees fairly by providing respectable employment plans that fit individual needs and being greener in society by caring to implement plans to reduce their carbon footprint. Ben and Jerry’s Ben and Jerry’s started out as small ice cream makers in Vermont with a very small company that grew astronomically. They did not intend on having a plan for responsibility to employees, society, and the planet. They are a prime example of how a business that is not focused solely on the bottom line can make a difference in the community and the world. In 2010 to make the company greener they said, â€Å"Our vision is that the entire country will switch over to hydrocarbon (HC) freezers that are significantly more energy-efficient and use gases with lower global warming potential than standard freezers, which use hydrofluorocarbons (HFC). † (Ben and Jerry’s Social and Responsibility Report 2010). They are making effort to do something to improve the environment even if it does cost them some profits. They give back to the community and support jobs with their foundaiton stating, â€Å"Through the Foundation, we’re helping immigrant workers, neighborhood groups, farm workers and dozens of other groups around the country to get organized and fight for a fair deal. In 2011, Ben & Jerry’s contributed $2,180,808 to the Foundation based on the 2010 sales of the Company. † (Ben and Jerry’s Social and Responsibility Report 2010). These are all things Ben and Jerry’s or any corporation could certainly overlook ithout many reprocussions , but being outardly accountable and charitable makes them a more appealing company to buy from. This also leads the way in showing other corporations that you can make a difference in the world, grow as a company, and be responsible. The Walt Disney Corportation When I think of The Walt Disney Company I think of fun amusement parks, Mickey Mouse, and entertaining childern’s movies. They are much more than that step ping up to the challenge of being reposible as a corporation to its employees and the environment. Disney has a very focused plan to do their part in the environment as shown in the chart below. (The Walt Disney Company 2010 Corporate Citizen Report) The goals and plan they have to minimize the effects of on the environment is something every company should be doing, and having it available for the public to read is another positive apect. The employees at disney receive opportunity to pursue further education and get great benefits packages. They state, â€Å"But we know your life isn't just about work. You have additional things going on – family, friends, personal interests, education and more. The Walt Disney Company offers a comprehensive total rewards package that helps you live your best life, grow personally and professionally, and get rewarded for the results you deliver. † (Disney Careers. Total Rewards). This leads me to believe that Disney has a vested interest in the employees they hire and care about them as individuals. Tyson I see a commercial for some hungry teenagers and how Tyson chicken nuggets or strips satisfies their cravings, but I rarely stop to think if they treat their employees fairly or the environment. Tyson is a leading corporation that does care saying, â€Å"We offer one of the best benefit packages, not just in the industry but in the nation. † (Tyson Corporation. Tyson Benefits. ) They a great plan for all realms of health care, stock options, retirement plans, a full service credit union, education and leadership training, discounts on all products. They participate in hundreds of community events, showing they care about the public. Tyson also is striving o not just follow the guidelines of the law but to go above and beyond to protect the enviornemnt, â€Å"For Tyson Foods, protecting the environment is about more than maintaining compliance with the environmental laws and regulations applicable to our operations. It’s about embracing a process of continual improvement aimed at protecting the environment for future generations. † (Tyson. Sustainablity Report. Planet). They recyle, reduce amount of water used, evaluate using an alternative fuel source, r educe packing waste, conserve energy, and reduce the number of trucks on the road. They are focused on the future and know that playing their part is not just about following the law but providing more for the community and the environment. Strengths| Weakness| Opportunities | Threats| Improving the quality of life for employees| Losing profits from spending time and money on things other than the product or service| To gain customers from being a reputable company| You may go out of business by focusing too much on these other items| Helping the environment| Stockholders may think this a waste of funds| Recognized as a company that does more for society| Bottom line is effected | SWOT Analysis For Tyson Foods, protecting the environment is about more than maintaining compliance with the environmental laws and regulations applicable to our operations. It’s about embracing a process of continual improvement aimed at protecting the environment for future generations. For Tyson Foods, protecting the environment is about more than maintaining compliance with the environmental laws and regulations applicable to our operations. It’s about embracing a process of continual improvement aimed at protecting the environment for future generations. For Tyson Foods, protecting the environment is about more than maintaining compliance with the environmental laws and regulations applicable to our operations. It’s about embracing a process of continual improvement aimed at protecting the environment for future generations. Conclusion Corporations need to be responsible while still earning a resonable profit to continue thriving, changing, and becoming better. â€Å"Doing no harm beyond meeting legal requirements regarding the environment, conditions of employement, community relationtions, and ethics. The law always lags behind the best practice. † (Charles Handy What is a Business for). It is the corporations reposnsibility to step up and take action instead of being forced to by law or any other orgainzaitons. Corporations need to start doing more and providing the information to the public so we can see that they are actually making not just a profit but a change to make the world a better place. Sources Ben and Jerrys. Social and Environmental Assesment Report 2010. http://www. benjerry. com/company/sear/2010/index. cfm Harvard Business Review. What is a Business for. Charles Handy. (Page 7) The Walt Disney Company. The Walt Disney Company 2010 Corporate Citizen Report 2010. http://corporate. disney. go. com/CITIZENSHIP2010/environment/overview/ourapproach/ The Walt Disney Company. Disney Careers Total Rewards. http://disneycareers. com/en/working-here/total-rewards/ Tyson Corporation. Careers. Why Tyson. Tyson Benefits. http://www. tysonfoodscareers. com/Why-Tyson-Foods/Benefits. aspx Tyson Corporation. Sustainablitity Report 2010. Planet 4. 0. http://www. tysonfoods. com/Sustainability/2010/Planet. aspx

Marketing Plan for Toyota Prius Essay

1. Executive Summary Toyota Motors is preparing to launch the new Toyota Prius Hybrid. The Prius will be using the Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD) with features combining highly efficient petrol engine and an electric motor. The electric vehicle (EV) allows the Prius to run purely for low noise and zero fuel consumption (Toyota Company, 2012). Due to the ever increasing presence of green revolution, Toyota Motors wants to take advantage of the potential increase in demand for hybrid vehicles (Boschert, 2007). Having been voted the World’s No 1 Hybrid in 2010 (Toyota, 2013), Toyota Motors have made an executive decision to continue producing the Prius, giving the world its first mass-produced hybrid car. As a result, even before launching this new product it is important for Toyota Motors to prepare strategic marketing place so that the Toyota Prius can impact the marketplace. 2. Current Marketing Situation 1. Product Let us take a look at the Prius with respect to its exterior, interior, performance, safety and price (Toyota Company, 2013). Exterior: The Prius has a distinct design shaped by using a comprehensive approach to aerodynamic theory and performance, contributing to its powerful performance and outstanding fuel efficiency. Interior: The interior of the Prius expresses the spirit of innovation which is warm and inviting. The Prius is fully equipped with soft lines which flow around the occupants as passengers and drivers alike relax comfortably. Performance: The Prius is a combination of highly efficient engine with a fully equipped electric motor. The HSD provides a smooth, responsive performance which includes low fuel consumption and low exhaust emission. Safety: The Prius ensures peace of mind. This means that it is fully equipped with active and passive safety measures that integrate the use of advanced technologies; helping to ensure the highest level of safety. Price: The Prius is currently priced at RM 139,915 with insurance for consumers in Peninsular Malaysia. As technology for the Prius increase, Toyota will surely lower its market price so as to make it more affordable for consumers. 2. Market data According to a survey done by J. D. Power published in 2012, almost 23% of respondents have indicated that the next car they would buy or lease would most likely be a hybrid car such as the Prius (Tuttle, 2013). Toyota being the top manufacturing hybrid car company has certainly managed to push beyond its original niche status and become a best seller across the globe. 3. Competition The Prius continues to face intense competition from other automakers. One of Toyota’s main competitors is Ford. Ford has recently launched the C-Max. The C-Max has been impressive recording higher sales than the Prius V (Turtle, 2013). In January 2013, Bloomberg reports that Ford hybrid sales have increased five-fold. Ford has sold 6000 hybrids in January 2013 as compared to only 1200 in January 2012 (Trudell, 2013). Erich Merkle, Ford’s sales analyst has even reported that â€Å"we are looking toward 2013 as being a record sales year for our hybrid vehicles.† Also, Ford’s market share has increased from 7% in 2012 to 16% in 2013. 4. Macro-Environment We will be using the PESTLE analysis as a tool to clearly identify and analyze the key drivers of change in the business environment (Johnson, Scholes and Whittington, 2008. As stated by Orfano, this PESTLE tool allows the assessing of the current environment and potential changes (Orfano, 2011). We shall look at these 6 factors based on the research done by Sin and co (Sin, 2012). Political Factors: The Prius has a positive political impact because by manufacturing these hybrid cars, a country reduces the dependence on petrol. This is true for countries that do not produce oil. Economic Factors: Consumers will begin to select the Prius because of the fuel savings over time benefits. Also, the cost of insurance and road tax for the Prius is relatively lower that a normal gasoline car. Social Factors: Since change in the climate is a serious issue, Toyota should produce a vehicle which will not bring pollution to the environment. Although the Prius is significantly higher in value than conventional cars, with technology increasing in the near future it is very likely that the price of the Prius will decline accordingly as the Prius’ technology become more familiar. Technological Factors: Hachman suggests the technology used in Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles is the idea of using the batter powered car. The recharging time is one and a half hours for 240V AC or three hours for 120V AC. The plug-in will switch to hybrid mode, providing an estimated 49 miles per gallon (Hachman, 2011). In order to increase mileage, the Prius is built from a body of lightweight materials such as carbon fiber, aluminum, magnesium and titanium. Legal Factors: According to the United States department of energy lead programs office (LPO), it encourages advance clean energy technologies. This is to contribute meaningfully to the objectives of including job creation, reducing dependency on foreign oil, improving environmental legacy and enhancing American competitiveness in the global economy of the 21st century (U.S. Department of Energy, 2005). Environmental Factors: The Prius unlike other cars does not produce gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides, oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbon and lead which can cause many health problems. Not only does the Prius, provide a public benefit but at the same times it does not compromise on its safety, quality and functionality. 3. SWOT Analysis It is importance to identify Toyota’s organizational strengths and weakness together with its opportunities and threats. The ultimate goal is to identify Toyota’s core competencies – things that Toyota has or does relatively well as compared with competitors (Schermerhorn, 2011). |Strengths |Weaknesses | |Best fuel efficiency of any midsize car |Fuel economy varies and optimization requires careful driving | |Spacious interior |Premium price compared to similar non-hybrid cars | |Good performance compared to non-hybrid vehicles |Other cars are available in the same price range with significantly | |Comfortable |higher performance | |Quiet at all speeds |Requires more energy to build than comparable non-hybrid cars | |Smoother transmission than most other cars | | |Appeal of latest technology | | |Minimal impact on environment | | |Excellent scoring on crash test | | |Opportunities |Threats | |It is likely that petroleum will cost more in the future as supplies|High mileage clean diesel based cars are becoming more available and| |diminish which may increase demand |will grab market share | |Awareness of environmental concerns is growing |Other hybrids such as the Ford C-Max will soon enter the market | |Sales are likely to spread new markets in developing cou ntries over |Toyota’s recent negative press and widespread recalls are likely to | |time |scare some potential buyers. | (Halbright, 2010) 4. Objectives Increase awareness of Toyota Prius by 50% in the next 3 years targeting new markets in developing countries. Increase total sales of Toyota Prius by 40% by the end of 2013 (Refer to Appendix: Note 1) Invest substantially in positioning a distinctive Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD) projecting low noise and zero fuel consumption. Start positioning Toyota Prius as an environmental friendly family car. 5. Marketing Strategy Creative Strategy: The Toyota Prius offers features that no other car offers. This in itself is its unique selling point and should be emphasized in market promotions. As a start to achieve the increase in awareness, promotion should concentrate on the education aspect. Communication Mix: As for communicating the Prius, two factors should be considered a) the type of product (high involvement) and the stage in the product life cycle (introduction). With regards to high involvement, personal selling is important because it provides more conviction of purchase. Personal selling will be carried out by the local car dealers who need to have sufficient knowledge on the Prius. Personal selling will also include targeting corporate companies or fleet buying segment. As for the stage in the product life cycle, sales promotion is most effective trigger for a purchase. Sales promotions are useful at the beginning of the product life cycle to increase acceptance or provoke a test drive. Media Strategy: The internet plays an important role. A direct mail will be sent to potential buyers and enable buyers to purchase the Prius online which would include a downloadable e-brochure. All advertisements will bear the Prius web address to make it easy for buyers to find it. Besides that, print adverts will be placed in quality newspapers especially those newspapers with weekend car editions such as The Star, New Straits Times, The Sun etc. Also, since the television is a good medium to target a wider audience it should be a priority. The TV stations would include TV3, NTV7 etc. Not forgetting outdoor billboards positioned at specific junctions. This could be complemented with a TV and print advertising where it is visible for potential buyers to see. Pre-Launch: This is crucial to get potential buyers excited about the new and upcoming Prius. Focusing on the pre-launch could potential determine how well the Prius sells. Consequently, an aura of excitement should be built from social media, direct mail, advertising, television adverts etc. This would also create awareness for the product that has a long purchase cycle and a long decision time. 6. Action Programs Subsequently the action program will be over a span of 3 years. So as to align our action program with our objectives, our marketing strategies will directly plan to achieve the objectives in which we set out. (The breakdown of the action program is attached in the Appendix: Note 2-4) 7. Projected Profit and Loss Statements The Projected Profit and Loss Statement would project a gross profit of RM 172,787.50. This comes from a projected unit sale of 2,500 units. (The breakdown of the Projected Profit and Loss Statement is attached in the Appendix: Note 5) 8. Controls So as to maximize the return on the marketing plan, there needs to be controls in place to monitors the plans progress (Anderson, 2013). Customer Feedback: To monitor the marketing plan, Toyota needs to monitor customer feedback through polls and surveys. Toyota can reach our buyers indirectly through hosting online polls on the Internet. Consequently, surveys can be done with marketing groups or via individual interviews by phone or in person. Target Market Sales: The Toyota Prius sales can be measured by the units sold. This is also done through market survey or at the point of sale. For example, if the target market is male ages 40 to 50, then market sales reports would monitor sales made to that group. On the other hand, if sales are down, then further market research would need to identify sales made to that group. Budgeting: This would include printing expense, travel expenses for trade shows, cost of market research studies and internal personnel costs. These costs would need to be closely monitored to minimize spending and maximize profitability. Market Share: Toyota would need to control market share which is the percentage of consumer sales dominated by the Prius. According to Turtle, the Toyota Prius market share decrease from 68% in 2012 to 60% in 2013 (Turtle, 2013). Subsequently, Toyota would need to increase market share and continue to place the Prius’ stamp in the marketplace.

Adventures of Huck Finn

American society during the time when the book was written. The protagonist, Houck, goes through a significant development and changes his views about life different from what the society has taught him. Throughout the story, characterization of the society and how it works, progress In Husk's relationship with Jim, and explanation why Houck respects certain individuals and why he is critical of some are evident.The picture of Southern society that can be derived from the book is a society that sacks an effective government and full of violence. In chapter five, a Judge releases an order to give Husk's custody to his father despite the father's history of neglect and abuse. This makes public officials' wisdom and morality questionable. In chapter eighteen of the book, it is revealed that there is a feud going on between the Grandiose and Sheepherders that has been going on for years and that multiple lives have been lost. In chapter twenty-two of the book, a mob charges to Shrubbery' s a house to lynch him for shooting a drunken man.It shows that there is a myriad of lenience but also a lack of rightful laws. People could execute someone accused of crimes without legal due process. This Is the kind of society Houck grew up In. The knowledge Houck gained from the society creates a conflict with the progress of his relationship with Jim. When Jim realizes that Houck is just pulling a trick on him saying that their separation due to a heavy fog is Just a dream, Jims feelings are hurt and Houck feels bad and apologizes. This is when Houck becomes aware that Jim cares about him and he cares about him too.Although when they think that they are close o Cairo, Husks conscience bothers him because he is actually letting Jim free which the society has taught him to be a wrong doing. Houck almost tells on Jim but decides to disregard morality. Their friendship grows stronger through series of events and eventually Houck decides that he would rather go to hell If It means f ollowing his gut and not the society cruel principles. Husk's relationship with Jim changes from weak to strong and makes him change his views about life particularly sense of morality.Houck respects Tom Sawyer and Jim while he Is critical of the duke and the pippin. Houck utters in chapter thirty-four that if he had Tom Sawyers head, he would not trade it off for anything. In addition, in most of his adventures he thinks what Tom Sawyer would do. In regards to Jim, the more Houck finds out about Jim, like how much he cares about his family especially his children, the more he finds out how great of a person Jim is and the greater the admiration he has for him. On the other hand, the people that pretend to be the duke and the dauphin are the ones Houck dislikes and disapproves.This is evident when Houck gets the $6,000 in gold that he duke and dauphin scammed from Mary Jane and her sisters and tries to give it back. In chapter twenty-four, the duke and the dauphin make Houck â€Å" ashamed of the human race†. Houck looks up to people who mean no harm to others. The book contains a myriad of lessons and questions about different aspects of life. It also Informs the readers of what the American society used to be like, one of It being the noble goodness of a person derives from the purity of their ancestry. To be looked up to and liked. The book undoubtedly has some though-provoking subjects.

Forbidden and Dangerous Love

essay Josephine Sellberg English Mrs. Giraud 1/9/10 Forbidden and Dangerous Love The story †Pyramus and Thisbe† is about two lovers, Pyramus and Thisbe. Because their love is forbidden, they are forced to do dangerous things to satisfy it. In the story, Pyramus and Thisbe’s parents have forbidden their love for each other. The teenagers live on either side of a wall that separates them. The two lovers one day decide that they want to be together and not have a wall between them. They decide to do a dangerous thing and sneak away from home into the dark fields.What drives the action in this story is Pyramus and Thisbe’s love that just gets stronger because it is forbidden. They take a dangerous risk when they sneak out into the wild when it’s dark and lions are around. When something is forbidden it can make it even more â€Å"attractive† and that is what happens with Pyramus and Thisbe’s love. Pyramus, â€Å"the handsomest youth† and Thisbe, â€Å"the fairest maiden† are the two lovers in the story; they want to get married, but their parents will not let them (1). One thing, however, they cannot forbid is their love for each other.In fact, their love â€Å"burned more intensely for being covered up† (1). They converse by signs and glances. Pyramus and Thisbe find a crack in the wall that separates them, allowing them to talk to each other. Amazing â€Å"what will not love discover† (1). Every night, when it is time to say farewell, the lovers are forced to â€Å"press their lips upon the wall† (1). They can never give each other a real goodnight kiss or a hug when they need one. The wall do not only separate them it separates their love. They just have to do something about it; it is just too hard for them to restrain their affection.This decision leads to dangerous plans. Danger moves the story forward due to Pyramus and Thisbe’s choices and plans. The two lovers decide to take the chance and sneak out. They were going to sneak out in the middle of the night beyond the â€Å"watchful eyes of their parents† (2) Pyramus has some knowledge of the danger because he brings a sword which he later uses to kill himself. They were going to meet in the fields the next night and be together. Thisbe is at the meeting place first and has to wait for Pyramus to come. She sees a lion and flees, and finds refuge under a rock.She drops her veil, which the lioness tosses around with her bloody mouth. When Pyramus approaches the meeting place, he sees footsteps of a lion and his lover’s bloody veil. He thinks that he has been the cause of her death and then he kills himself with the sword. As soon as Thisbe recognizes her lover she knows that she was not going to live her life without Pyramus, so she also kills herself. Pyarmus and Thisbe’s plan to sneak out ends up to be dangerous and nothing like they thought it would be like. Pyramus and Thisb e’s â€Å"forbidden love† for each other make them do dangerous things.Their love even gets stronger because of the fact that it is forbidden, and nothing can tear them apart. The story ends telling that even death cannot separate the two lovers. Pyramus and Thisbe were born to be together and that was how it was going to stay. When something is forbidden, it can be more interesting or attractive to a person. Something forbidden can make a person want to explore it even more, and take a risk just to explore it. When there is something we really want is withheld, our behavior and judgment can easily be clouded.

Sfl Genre Literature Review

CHAPTER II Travelling Uncharted Waters? REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 2. 1 Introduction: Storm in a teacup This part of my research journey was fraught with anxiety, distress and a sense of being lost. Reviewing the literature became my own storm in a teacup, as I found myself dizzily spiralling, being flung between not knowing on the one side, on the verge of knowing at the other, yet continuously feeling out of control, not being here nor there †¦ caught somewhere between locating, analysing, synthesising and reviewing the expert knowledge.Searching for literature and locating the literature, even with support, was a lonely road. Never have I felt that the more I began to read and know, the less I felt I knew, lost and alone amid so many theories, expert knowledge, data and findings. And so this genre journey became a rumbling of thoughts, ideas and theories to be summarised, referenced and sometimes even violently tossed aside. Reviewing the literature and writing up summaries was a cup of tea, yet I was slowly dissolving, losing my own voice and experiencing a sense of losing of my own identity.In robot-like fashion I found myself speaking and quoting studies done by experts in the field and then became aware of another storm brewing in my teacup: what miniscule contribution could I make? Would I be able to negotiate meaning for an expert audience in this genre field? Would I successfully structure the information according to issues pertinent to my research, and would I be able to identify themes that are linked to my research question?As I attempt to write, my teacup torments and reminds me again that I have become the echoing voice of experts. So during this process I am riding a storm of emotions, wondering whether I will remain a voiceless, writing wanderer, I wonder †¦ Yet, strangely losing my own voice, reminds me of our learners and teachers at school who face so many challenges with this process called writing. Reflecting on my literature, I p ondered putting to practice my knowledge of genre theory and this became one of my storm lanterns. Surely, esearching the merits of such a theory should provide me with tools to deconstruct and conquer this silly storm brewing in my tea cup? And so finally, as I begin to let go, embracing this brewing cup of storm, I am steadfastly sensing that many storm lanterns have and will guide me in finding a way to indicate to an expert audience my ability to identify, search, locate and present a coherent review of the literature. At this point the storm is still brewing, at times even raging, never fully abating but it is becoming lesser in intensity.And so, I am realising that this willy-nilly writing storm brewing in my teacup is someone else’s tornado and maybe both of these could be another writer’s cup of tea. This chapter attempts to draw on literature from genre theory, specifically genre theory based on Systemic Functional Linguistics. Hyland (2002) refers to a genre- based approach to teaching writing as being concerned with what learners do when they write. This includes a focus on language and discourse features of the texts as well as the context in which the text is produced.My primary intention is to explore the literature on different approaches to teaching writing and more specifically in what ways a genre-based approach to teaching writing could facilitate the development of writing skills at a multilingual primary school. 2. 1. 2 Framing the problem Success after school, whether it is at a tertiary institution or in the world of work, is largely dependent on effective literacy skills. To succeed one has to display a range of communicative skills, for example, listening, speaking, reading and writing tasks.But, most importantly, the quality of one’s writing determines access to higher education and well paid jobs in the world of work. In these scenarios, success or entry is dependent on either passing an English writing proficienc y test or on the skill of writing effective reports. However, writing skills are even essential in the most general forms of employment, for example, waitressing necessitates writing down customer orders and working at a switchboard implies taking messages, writing down memos or notes.Therefore, learning to write at school should be synonymous with learning and acquiring the formats and demands of different types of texts necessary in broader society. On this point, Kress (1994) argues that language, social structures and writing are closely linked. The written language taught at school reflects the more affluent social structures and thus the standard written variants are deemed more acceptable by society.However, the kind of writing taught and valued at school , that is, poetry, literature and essays is mastered by a very few learners and the control of written language is in the hands of a relatively few people. As a result of this uneven access to the types of writing valued in society, the ability to use and control the different forms of writing brings about exclusion from the social, economic and political advantages connected with writing proficiency. Consequently, in the push for greater equity and access, writing instruction globally has become a field of increasing interest in recent years.There have been numerous approaches to the teaching of writing in the history of language teaching for English as a first and second language, where first language refers to English mother tongue speakers and second language to learners who have English as a second or an additional language (see Kumaravadivelu, 2006; Hinkel, 2006; Canagarajah, 2006; Celce-Murcia, 1997) Not surprisingly, this magnitude of approaches has resulted in many paradigm shifts in the field of language teaching and in developing countries like South Africa, these international trends, approaches and paradigms shifts impact on local educational trends, as encapsulated in educational policy d ocuments. Ivanic (2004) argues that historically from the 19th and 20th century formal discourses have influenced a great deal of policy and practice in literacy education. Such discourses focused primarily on teaching of formal grammar, patterns and rules for sentence construction (pg 227). As a result, these discourses viewed language as a set of skills to be taught, learnt and mastered, and valued writing that demonstrated knowledge about language such as rules of syntax, sound-symbol relationships and sentence construction.Therefore, those writers that conformed to the correctness of grammar, letter, word, and sentence and text formation were viewed as competent writers. Furthermore, Dullay, Burt and Krashen (1982) state that the earliest work in the teaching of writing was based on the concept of controlled or guided composition and that language was seen as something that could be meaningfully visualised in taxonomies and rationalised into tables arranged across the two-dimens ional space of the textbook page. This focus on the conscious acquisition of rules and forms meant that teachers were focusing on parts of speech, demanding standards of correctness, and being prescriptive about what were ostensibly language facts.However, such an approach was found to be extremely limited because it did not necessarily produce speakers who were able to communicate successfully. Therefore, although learners might master the lists, structures and rules, this might not lead to the development of language fluency or to the ability to transfer such knowledge into coherent, cohesive and extended pieces of writing in school or beyond it. During the late 1970s more functional approaches developed. These were more concerned with what students can do with language, for example, meeting the practical demands in different contexts such as the workplace and other domains. Examples of writing tasks included filling out job applications, preparing for interviews, and writing appl ications.However, these involved minimal writing other than completing short tasks ‘designed to reinforce particular grammar points or language functions’ (Auerbach, 1999: 1). Moreover, such tasks were taught in classrooms and out of context of issues that could emerge in real contexts. As the limitations of a formalist approach to language teaching became increasingly obvious, teachers and researchers turned to a more process-oriented methodology. This focused more on the writing process than on the product and advocated expressive self-discovery from the learner/writer through a process approach to writing. Such a writing approach ‘focus[ed] on meaningful communication for learner-defined purposes’ (Auerbach, 1999:2).As a result, the learner is taken as the point of departure, and goes through a process of drafting, editing and redrafting; the teacher’s role is less prescriptive, allowing learners to be self-expressive and explore how to write. As such, the process approach won favour with those who were of the opinion that controlled composition was restrictive, viewing a liberal-progressive approach as more suited for first language classrooms (Paltridge, 2004). This approach was taken up by researchers interested in Second Language Acquisition (see Krashen, 1981; Ellis, 1984; Nunan, 1988), and in second language classes learners were also encouraged to develop ideas, draft, review and then write final drafts.On the other hand, Caudery (1995) argues that little seems to have been done to develop a process approach specifically for second language classes. Therefore, it appeared that the same principles should apply as for first language learners, for example, the use of peer and teacher commentary along with individual teacher-learner conferences, with minimal direction given by the teacher who allows learners to discover their voices as they continue through the writing process. This lack of direction was highlighted by re search in different contexts carried out by Caudery (1995) with practising teachers of second language writing. Based on questionnaires, findings showed that teachers in second language classes had differing perceptions and methods of implementing a process approach.This could however be ascribed to the different contexts that these second language teachers found themselves in, for example, large classes and different ways of assessing writing. One finding of the study was that teachers could easily dilute the process of writing into disconnected stages where both L2 learners and teachers could perceive it as steps to be followed towards an end product. As a result, the writing process became viewed as a means to an end. In addition, learners understood the process but did not explicitly learn the language features associated with different types of writing. A third approach that has gained prominence in recent decades is the socio-cultural practices approach which seeks to affirm t he culturally specific literacy practices that learners bring with them to school.Social practice advocates argue that literacy is not a universal, solely cognitive process but that literacy varies from context to context and culture to culture (Street, 1984, Barton, Hamilton & Ivanic, 2000). As a result, if literacy varies from context to context and culture to culture, then it follows that learners would bring to school different ways of writing. Accordingly, educators in multilingual classrooms should value learners’ cultural knowledge and ways of writing or use them as a bridge to new learning (Auerbach, 1999). Furthermore, the manner in which writing is taught transmits profound ideas to learners about who they are, what is entailed in the process of writing, and what they can do with writing.Therefore, the way in which writing is taught and learnt is a powerful tool for shaping the identities of learners and teachers in schools (ibid, 1999). Proponents of a fourth appro ach, the genre-based approach, have argued that both the socio-cultural and the process approaches to teaching writing result in learners being excluded from opportunities and that these approaches are in fact disempowering them (Delpit, 1998, Martin & Rose, 2005). They contend that certain domains, contexts and cultures yield more power than others and that if learners tell their stories, find their voices and celebrate their cultures; this is not enough for them to gain access to these more powerful domains.Therefore they suggest that learners should be empowered through access to writing the discourses of power, focusing on culture, context and text. Such approaches also enable an analysis of how identities, cultures, gender and power relations in society are portrayed in texts. Genre research done in Australia (see Disadvantaged Schools Project Research, 1973) where the additional language is the medium of instruction for aboriginal learners had major educational rewards for tea chers and learners participating in the project. Singapore too moved towards a text-based approach with the introduction of their 2001 English Language Syllabus (Kramer-Dhal, 2008).This approach has paid dividends for the Singapore education system, for example, continuous improvement in examination scores and achievements in international league tables, compared to the learners’ past underachievement in literacy tests (see PIRLS 2001, Singapore results) and this is maintained in the 2006 PIRLS testing of literacy and reading. The next section will draw on literature from genre theory, providing a brief overview of the notion of genre and how it has evolved as a concept. Then, literature on three different scholarly genre traditions New Rhetoric Studies, English for Academic Purposes and Systemic Functional Linguistics and their different educational contexts, purposes and research paradigms is explored and discussed. However this chapter mainly investigates literature relati ng to the Systemic FunctionalLinguistic perspective on genre, the history of genre theory and research done in Australia, the implications for schools and classrooms and how genre theory has impacted on the pedagogy of teaching literacy in disadvantaged multilingual settings. A brief overview focusing on critiques of Systemic Functional Linguistics is also provided. 2. 2 Defining Genre Johns (2002) argues that the term ‘genre’ is not new and cites Flowerdew and Medway (1994) who state that for more than a century genre has been defined as written texts that are primarily literary, that are recognised by textual regularities in form and content, are fixed and permanent and can be classified into exclusive categories and sub-categories. However, a major paradigm shift has occurred in relation to notions and definitions of genre, and texts are now viewed as purposeful, situated and ‘repeated’ (Miller, 1984).These characteristics mean that genres have a specifi c purpose in our social world, that they are situated in a specific cultural context and that they are the result of repeated actions reflected in texts. Similarly, Hyland (2004) defines genre as grouping texts that display similar characteristics, representing how writers use language to respond to similar contexts. Martin and Rose (2002) place more emphasis on the structure of genre, seeing it as a ‘staged, goal oriented social process. Social because we participate in genres with other people; goal oriented because we use genres to get things done; staged because it usually takes us a few steps to reach our goals’ (pg 7). 2. 2. 1 An Old Concept revisitedAs stated above, traditionally the concept of ‘genre’ has been used to define and classify literary texts such as drama, poetry and novels in the fields of arts, literature and the media Breure (2001). For example, a detective story, a novel or a diary are each regarded as belonging to a different genre. In recent years interest in the concept of genre as a tool for developing first language and second language instruction has increased tremendously (Paltridge, 2004; Hyon, 1996; Johns, 2002). In second language writing pedagogy in particular much interest has been focused on raising language students’ schematic awareness of genres as the route to genre and writing development (Hyon 1996; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993; Johns, 2002; Paltridge 2004).However there are various theoretical camps and their different understanding of genre reveals the intellectual tensions that are inherently part of the concept (Johns, 2002). These intellectual tensions arise from the divergent theoretical understandings of whether genre theory is grounded in language and text structure or whether it stems fundamentally from social theories of context and community. Hyon (1996) argues for three schools of thought: Systemic Functional Linguistics, New Rhetoric Studies and English for Academic Purposes where as Flowerdew (2002) divides theoretical camps into two groups: linguistic and non-linguistic approaches to genre theory. Genre, in short, continues to be ‘a controversial topic, though never a dull one’ (Kay & Dudley-Evans, 1998:308).I have chosen to follow Hyon’s (1996) classification for reviewing the genre literature because this classification makes it easier to highlight the similarities and differences in definitions, purposes and contexts, and allows for a greater understanding of various approaches to genre in three research traditions. As a result, three schools of thought New Rhetoric Studies, English for Academic Purposes and Systemic Functional Linguistics and their approaches to genre will be discussed. 2. 3 The Three Schools of Thought During the last two decades, a number of researchers who were disillusioned with process approaches to teaching writing saw genre as a tool to develop both first language and second language instruction (Hyon, 1996; J ohns, 2002; Feez, 2002).Hyon (1996) in her analysis of ‘Genre in Three Traditions and the implications for ESL’ argues that three dominant schools of thought, English for Specific Purposes, North American New Rhetoric Studies and Australian Systemic Linguistics have resulted in different approaches, definitions and classroom pedagogies of genre (see also Hyland 1996, 2002, & 2004). As Cope and Kalantzis (1993: 2) put it, ‘†¦ genre has the potential to mean many things to many people’. Paltridge (2002) calls it a ‘murky issue’. An understanding of the theoretical roots, analytical approaches and educational contexts of the different schools of thought is thus essential. 2. 3. 1 New Rhetoric Studies Genre Theories The first school of thought is the New Rhetoric approach to genre (Dias & Pare, 2000; Dias, Freedman, Medway, & Pare, 1999) which recognises the importance of contexts and the social nature of genres but it is rooted in Bakhtinâ₠¬â„¢s notion of dialogism.This notion of dialogism means that language is realised through utterances and these utterances exist in response to things that have been said before and in anticipation of things that will be said in response, and thus language does not occur in a vacuum (Adams & Artemeva, 2002). As a result, genre is a social phenomenon born by the specific goals and circumstances of interaction between people. Therefore, advocates of New Rhetoric Studies argue that genres are dynamic, relational and engaged in a process of endless utterances and re-utterances (Johns, 2002). As such, the focus of this theoretical camp is on the communicative function of language. Consequently, their perspective on genre is not primarily informed by a linguistic framework but draws on post-modern social literary theories.Accordingly, for these proponents, understanding genres involves not only a description of their lexico-grammatical format and rhetorical patterns but that also that gen re is ‘embedded in the communicative activities of the members of a discipline’ (Berkenkotter & Hucklin, 1995:2). This view of genre as a flexible instrument in the hands of participants within a community of practice has meant that the use of text in the classroom situation has not been a major focus (Johns, 2002). Theorists concentrate on how ‘expert’ users manipulate genres for social purposes and how such genres can promote the interest and values of a particular social group in a historical and/or institutional context. ContextHyon (1996:698) states that, as with English for Specific Purposes (ESP), genre teaching within this framework is predominantly concerned with first language university students and novice professionals. It is concerned with helping first language students become more successful readers and writers of academic and workplace texts. Unlike, ESP and SFL, therefore the New Rhetoric Studies refers to first language development. One co nsequence of this is that their focus is much less concerned with formal classroom instruction. Purpose The focus of writing in this framework is thus on making students aware of the contexts and social functions of the genres in which they engage (Bazerman, 1988) and not on their formal trimmings.Proponents view genres as complex, dynamic, ever changing, and therefore not amenable to explicit teaching (Johns, 2002; Coe, 2004; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). They argue that it is through understanding of context that students can become more successful readers and writers of genres. 2. 3. 2 English for Specific Purposes Genre Theories The second major school of thought in relation to genre is English for Specific Purposes (ESP). The potential to perform competently in a variety of diverse genres is frequently a pivotal concern for English second language learners since it can be a determining factor in admission to higher paid career opportunities, higher educational studies, positive iden tities and life choices.As a result, ESP theorists ‘scrutinise the organisation and meaning of texts, the demands placed by the workplace or academic contexts on communicative behaviours and the pedagogic practices by which these behaviours can be developed’ (Hyon, 1996). Advocates of this paradigm are concerned with genre as a device for understanding and teaching the types of texts required of second language English speakers in scholarly and specialized contexts (Bhatia, 1993; Flowerdew, 1993; Gosden, 1992; Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988; Swales, 1990). They propose that genre pedagogy could assist non-native speakers of English to master the functions and linguistic conventions that they need to read and write in disciplines at higher institutions and in related professions.According to Paltridge (2004), ESP genre studies are predominantly based on John Swales’s (1981, 1990) work on the discourse structure and linguistic features of scientific reports. Swalesâ €™s work had a strong influence in the teaching of ESP and more so on the teaching of academic writing to non-native English graduate students at higher institutions. Swales (1990) defines genre as ‘a class of communicative events with some shared set of communicative purposes and a range of patterns concerning structure’ (pg 68) Furthermore, Swales argues that the communicative purpose of a particular genre is recognised by members of the discourse community, who in ‘turn establish the constraints on what is generally acceptable in terms of content, positioning and format’ (Paltridge, 2004:11). ContextGiven the focus on scientific and other kinds of academic writing within this framework, genre teaching occurs mostly at universities teaching English for academic purposes and in English classes for specific writing needs, such as professional communication, business writing, and other workplace-related writing needs. However, Hyon (1996) argued that, at the time of writing, many ESP researchers had managed to present their descriptions of genres as useful discourse models but had failed to propose how this content could be used in classroom models. For example, Dudley-Evans and Hopkins presented their analysis of cyclical move patterns in scientific master’s dissertations as a teaching and learning resource but did not describe how this model could be converted into materials, tasks and activities in the classroom (Johns, 2002). Purpose As the focus of this theoretical camp is on international students atEnglish-medium universities in Britain and abroad, their focus is on demystifying rather than on social or political empowerment (Paltridge, 2004). Due to the concern in this paradigm with English for academic and professional purposes, they focus on the formal aspects of text analysis. In fact, many ESP researchers particularly emphasise the teaching of genre structures and grammatical features (Hyon, 1996) or ‘moves ’ in texts as to referred by Swales (1990). The purpose of genre teaching in this framework is therefore on teaching students the formal staged, qualities of genres so that they can recognise these features in the texts they read and then use them in the texts they write, thus providing access to ‘English language academic discourse communities’ (Paltridge, 2004:16).As a result, in their approach to textual analysis ESP theorist have paid specific attention to formal elements of genres and focused less on the specialised functions of texts and their social contexts (Hyon, 1996). 2. 3. 3 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) Genre Theories This underplaying of the social context is taken up by the third school of thought, Systemic Functional Linguistics, which analyses the formal features of text in relation to language function in social context. SFL, referred to as ‘the Australian school’ in the United States of America, is rooted in the theoretical work of Halliday (Halliday, 1985; Halliday & Hasan, 1989; Johns, 2002). As a result, this theoretical camp is based on systemic functional linguistics and semiotics from which emerged the register-theory (Breure, 2001).Halliday developed his linguistic theory in order to give an account of the ways in which the English language functions as social practice (Halliday, 1985; Hasan & Halliday, 1989). As a result, this theoretical paradigm focuses on the systemic function of language from which choices are made to convey meaning within a specific context and with a specific purpose. Therefore, proponents within this framework propose that when a series of texts have similar purposes, they will probably have similar structures and language features. They are thus grouped as the same genre. Building on the work of Halliday, the idea of Systemic Functional Linguistics as a basis for language teaching emerged from the work of theorists such as Martin (1989, 1992).Christie (1991) and Rother y (1996) made attempts to take genre and grammar analysis a step further by providing and expanding scaffolds which bridge systemically between grammar and genre. They argue that texts need to be analysed as more than just mere sequences of clauses and that text analysis should focus on how language reveals or obscures social reality. Such an analysis can illuminate the ways in which language is used to construct social reality. Educational Context Cope and Kalantzis (1993) state that genre-based teaching started in Sydney as an ‘educational experiment’. The reason is, because by 1980, it seemed clear that the newly introduced progressive curriculum did not achieve the educational outcomes that it professed to (pg 1).As a result, researchers became interested in the types of writing and texts that learners in primary schools were expected to write as part of the process approach (Martin, 1989, 1991). These researchers were concerned that learners were not being prepared to write a wide enough range of texts needed for schooling, for example, findings showed that teachers mostly favoured narratives and recounts. So, genre-based research has predominantly been conducted at primary and secondary schools although it has also begun to include adult migrant English education as well as workplace training programmes (Adult Migrant Education service, 1992). As a result, in the Australian framework, the efforts of research are mostly centred on child and adolescent contexts unlike their ESP and New Rhetoric counterparts (Drury & Webb, 1991).A group of researchers in the late 1980’s started the Literacy in Education Research Network (LERN) (Cope, Kalantzis, Kress & Martin, 1993:239). Their aim was to develop an instructional approach to address the inadequacies of the process approach for teaching writing. For researchers in this paradigm, learners at school need explicit induction into the genres of power if they want to participate in mainstream te xtual and social processes both within and beyond the school (Macken-Horarik, 1996). Those learners who are at risk of failing fare better within a visible curriculum and this applies particularly to learners for whom the medium of instruction in not a home language. PurposeSystemic genre analysts contend that genre pedagogy should focus on language at the level of whole texts and should also take into account the social and cultural contexts in which texts are used (Martin, 1985, Rose & Martin, 2005). Furthermore, genres are viewed as social processes because ‘†¦ texts are patterned in reasonably predictable ways according to patterns of social interaction in a particular culture’ (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993:6). Consequently, SFL genre approaches see social purpose, language and context as interrelated in texts. Textual patterns reflect social conventions and interactions and these are executed through language.Therefore, genre teaching should move from linguistic d escription to an explanation and an understanding of why texts are shaped the way they are and how they achieve their particular goals (Paltridge, 2004). As a result, the basic principle underlying all such language approaches is that learners must learn not only to make grammatically correct statements about their world, but also develop the ability to use the language to get things done. The purpose of the Australian framework is to assist learners at school become more successful readers and writers of academic, school and workplace texts (Hyon,1996). Their goal is to help primary and secondary school learners ‘participate effectively in the school curriculum and the broader community’ (Callaghan 1991:72).Their focus is on learners learning to write in English as a second language and the challenges these learners might experience when writing and learning in a language that is not their mother tongue. Therefore they argue for explicit teaching through a cycle that à ¢â‚¬Ëœmodels and makes explicit the dominant forms of writing or text types valued in schools’ (Gibbons, 2002:52). Writing in an American context of disadvantaged students, Delpit (1998) strongly argues for the teaching of the genres of power, stating that if a learner is not already part of the culture of power, explicitly teaching the rules of this culture through genre makes access easier.Consequently, research on genre theory has been both politically and pedagogically motivated: a pedagogical project motivated by the political project of allowing equal access to social, economic and political benefits of Australian society through an explicit and visible literacy curriculum (Kress, 1993). As a result, Australia is often referred to as the place in which practitioners have been most successful in applying genre theory and research to pedagogy (Johns, 2002). My intention is to explore the use of SFL genre-based teaching as an alternative approach to teaching writing in gra de six at a multilingual primary school. However, approaches to research and pedagogy of SFL have not been accepted without critiques.These critiques originate from advocates of progressive literacy approaches (Lankshear & Knobel, 2000) and also from within genre camps practicing genre theory from different theoretical understandings. In the next section, I provide details of these critiques and a personal response to each critique. 2. 4 Critiques of genre of SFL There have been many critiques of SFL genre-based approaches, as mentioned in the previous section. Here I discuss three of the most telling: liberal progressive critiques, socio-cultural practice theorist critiques, and critical discourse analysts’ critiques about teaching the genres of power. The liberal progressivists claim that genre literacy entails a revival of transmission pedagogy.It seems to mean learning formal ‘language facts’ again. It is sometimes claimed that genre literacy teaching is foun ded on a pedagogy that will lead us back to the bad old days of authoritarian classrooms where some students found the authority congenial and succeeded, while others found the authority uncongenial and failed (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). However, in contrast to transmission approaches which often treated texts in isolation and grammar as separate and external from the text, a genre-based approach views texts as closely linked to social context and uses linguistic analysis to unpack the choices that are made for social purposes. Rather than unthinkingly replicating rules, learners are ssisted towards conscious control and can be encouraged to exercise creativity and flexibility on an informed basis. The ‘authority’ provided acts as a scaffold and is gradually withdrawn, thus shifting responsibility towards the learner. A second major critique has been raised by social practice theorists such as Lave and Wenger (1991) whose research focus is from a situated learning perspec tive. These advocates of situated learning view genres as too complex and diverse to be detached from their original contexts and taught in a non-natural milieu such as the classroom context. Also, they argue that learning occurs through engaging with authentic real world tasks and that learning to write genres arises from a need in a specific context.Therefore, in authentic settings, writing involves the attainment of larger objectives, which often involve non-linguistic features, and thus the disjuncture between situations of use and situations of learning is unbridgeable. However, although this theory offers a persuasive account of how learning takes place through apprenticeship and mastery roles, especially how an apprentice becomes a fully literate member of a disciplinary work group, it does not propose a clear role for writing teachers in the language classroom (Hyland, 2004). In a SFL genre approach by contrast, the selection of topics and texts can highlight how cultures ar e portrayed as either negative or positive.It can help learners become aware of how language choices in texts are bound up with social purposes (Lankshear & Knobel, 2000). This awareness is necessary for entry into intellectual communities or social discourses and practices, and can help make learning relevant, appropriate and applicable to the context in and outside of the classroom. It can also include a critical element as it provides learners with a linguistic framework to analyse and critique texts. A final important critique is that teaching of the genres of power will not automatically lead to social and economic access in a fundamentally unequal society (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993).While this may be true, the consequences of not teaching these genres could lead to English second language speakers’ from poor working class backgrounds being disadvantaged in perpetuity. The discourses of scientists, doctors and lawyers, for example, are often incomprehensible and obscure, de nying access to many, particularly second English language speakers and those not familiar with the conventions of their associated genres. These social exclusions are marked linguistically (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993). Therefore, SFL genre theorists’ notion of genres as textual interventions could provide access and equity to those not familiar with a particular discourse in society.Consequently, genre teaching in this framework has the intention of empowering disadvantaged and underprivileged students by providing them with the linguistic resources to critically analyse and become more proficient writers of different text types, thus potentially providing access to the socio-economic and political domains currently denied to many learners at schools. A related point is that a genre-based approach runs the risk of reproducing the status quo (Luke, 1996). However, a genre approach should be able to include issues of inequality and power relations in the teaching context by adop ting a critical education theoretical perspective, which strives to unveil existing deep-rooted ideologies within society with the intention of empowering students to question and change the status quo.If teachers are made aware of such aspects in texts, how meaning is constructed and negotiated in texts, and how this shapes our thinking about the world, they might be able to raise awareness and consciousness about power inequalities through the development of effective critical literacy skills in English additional language classes. At the same time, ‘functional ways of talking and thinking about language facilitate critical analysis’ (Hyland, 2004: 42). As a result, it may assist learners to distinguish texts as constructs that can be debated in relatively accurate and explicit ways, thus becoming aware that texts could be analysed, evaluated, critiqued, deconstructed and reconstructed. Such awareness is crucial for further education or academic studies at higher inst itutions of learning. Thus a genre-based approach to teaching writing might bridge the gap between writing required at school and the academic writing skills essential for undergraduate studies.Having sketched the broad parameters of the three main approaches to genre and how genre approaches have developed in different ways and with different underlying goals, I now focus in greater detail on the Australian Framework. This approach appears to offer the greatest scope for South African contexts given its intention to provide equity and access to social and economic spheres in society, which is also a central principle of the South African Constitution (1994) and C2005. Furthermore, the focus on English second language learning contexts and aboriginal learners from disadvantaged, poor working class communities is similar to learners from disadvantaged communities who learn mostly through a medium of instruction which is not their home language.Another important reason for focusing on this approach is that this genre-based approach could inform the teaching of writing and future teacher training frameworks that aim to improve the literacy outcomes of learners in the intermediate phase in South African contexts. 2. 5 A Closer look at The Australian Framework It was Michael Halliday (1975) a professor of Linguistics at the University of Sydney, who was the founding father of systemic functional linguistics (SFL) and provided the catalyst for the development of genre theory in Australia (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993). Halliday and his theory of systemic functional linguistics introduced the theme of ‘learning language, learning through language, learning about language’ (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993:231).As discussed above, SFL focuses on language and how it functions or is used in cultural and situational contexts and argues that language can be described or realised by means of a framework comprising cultural context, situational context and linguistic featu res. The Australian framework is therefore rooted in a text-context model of language (Lankshear &Knobel, 2000; Gibbons 2002; Derewianka 2003). Furthermore, SFL interprets the context of situation and the context of culture as two interrelated domains (Christie & Unsworth 2000). The context of situation is the immediate context in which language is used. However this context of situation can vary in different cultures and as such it is culture-specific.This situational context is described in three main categories of semantic resources, field, mode and tenor, and collectively this is referred to as the register of a text (Lankshear & Knobel, 2000) The field describes the subject-matter of the social activity, its content or topic; tenor focuses on the nature of the relationships among the people involved; mode refers to ‘medium and role of language in the situation’ (Martin, 1997: 10) Therefore, it is the register (field, tenor and mode) which influences how language is used because it provides the social purpose of the text through answering ‘what is going on, who is taking part, the role language is playing’ (Martin & Rothery, 1993: 144). Hence, SFL explores the relationship between language and its social functions.The earliest work on applying this framework to education was carried out by Martin and two of his students Rothery and Christie who started a research project in 1978 using the field, tenor and mode framework to analyse writing produced in schools (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993; Kress, 1993). In 1980 Martin and Rothery examined student writing that had been collected over numerous years (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993). Their findings indicated that most school valued texts were short and limited to a few genres for example, labelling, observation, reports, recounts and narratives, with observations and recounts being the dominant genres (pg 233). Furthermore, they found that the texts produced in textbooks lacked development, even within story genres, were extremely gendered, and irrelevant to the needs of the community or secondary schools.They then developed the hypothesis that genres at schools should be explicitly taught by teachers. This research resulted in the development of a curriculum cycle providing scaffolding and explicit teaching through setting the field, deconstructing a text, modelling writing, jointly constructing a new text and culminating with individual writing (Macken-Horarik, 1998; Feez; 2002; Paltridge, 2004; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993; Martin& Francis, 1984). Building field and setting context is critical to each phase of the cycle and this refers to a range of activities which build up content for the genre and knowledge about the contexts in which it is deployed (Martin & Rose, 2000).In this way, learners move from everyday, common sense knowledge towards technical, specialist subject knowledge, and are gradually inducted into the discourse and field knowledge of school subjects. As a r esult, this approach can strengthen and promote learning language and about language across the curriculum. The logic of the curriculum cycle is based on the notion of ‘scaffolding’. Hammond (2000) and Gibbons (2002) refer to this as ‘scaffolding language’ based on Vygotsky’s (1976) zone of proximal development (Derewianka, 2003). In this process the teacher takes a more direct role in the initial phase, with the learner in the role of apprentice. As the learner develops greater control of the genre, the teacher gradually withdraws support and encourages learner independence (Derewianka, 2003).Therefore, genre literacy has the intention to reinstate the teacher as professional, as expert on language, whose role in the classroom should be authoritative but not authoritarian as opposed to the teacher as facilitator in more progressive teaching models (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). As a result, the curriculum cycle and its scaffolding approach could be valua ble in activating the schemata of English second language learners as opposed to a context where English teaching approaches are traditional and narrow. Such approaches could have negative educational impacts on disadvantaged learners. 2. 6 The Disadvantaged Schools Programme Luke and Kale (1989:127) argue that monolingual and monocultural practices permeated official language and education planning in Australia prior 1970. Similar to South African apartheid policies, Australia practiced a ‘White Australian Policy’ (Luke & Kale, 1989:127).However, in the early 1970s the Australian government recognised that aboriginals and islander learners should be integrated into mainstream schools (Luke & Kale, 1989). As a result, the need to acknowledge Aboriginal and migrant languages became a priority in educational policies. Furthermore, Diane Russell (2002) states that up to 1967 very few Aboriginal students in South Australia entered secondary school unless they were wards of the state and, given this history of disadvantage, much of the literature about the education of Aboriginal students since then refers to the poor retention and attainment rate of Aboriginal students compared to their non-Aboriginal peers.As a result, the Disadvantaged Schools Programme (DSP), an initiative of the Interim Committee of the Schools Commission (1973), was initiated to reduce the effects of poverty on learners at school (McKenzie, 1990) and participation was based on the social and economic conditions of the community from which the school draws its learners. Thus the intention of the DSP was to improve the learning outcomes of learners from educationally disadvantaged backgrounds in Australia to increase their life choices (Randell, 1979). Therefore, a fundamental aim of the DSP was to equip disadvantaged learners with power, through education, to enter and share fully in the benefits of society as a matter of social justice.Furthermore, a majority of Aboriginal people grow up in homes where Standard Australian English is at most a second dialect, sometimes first encountered on the first day of school. Accordingly, accepting the language children bring to school and using that to build competence in Standard Australian English is the ‘key to improving the performance of Aboriginal students’ (www. daretolead. edu. au). Genre theorists have been concerned with equitable outcomes, thus discourses of generation, ethnicity and class have been a preoccupation. These theorists argued that progressive pedagogies were marginalising working-class Aborigine and other disadvantaged learners (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993).For Burns (1990) progressive curriculum approaches led to a confusing array of approaches and methodologies and failed to provide a well-formulated theory of language. Further, Cope (1989) argued that an ‘authoritative’ pedagogy for the 1990s was needed to replace the progressive curriculum of the mid-1970s as this had ne glected to make explicit to learners the knowledge they need to gain to access socially powerful forms of language. Due to the above kinds of debates in the SFL genre theory camp, a literacy consultant, Mike Callaghan, working with the DSP in Sydney, decided that SFL might be a viable theory and this resulted in the Language and Social Power Project.Teachers who were disillusioned with progressive teaching methods became eagerly involved in this project (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). Additionally, Cope and Kalantzis (1993) report that teachers discovered that genre theory did not dismantle all the progressive language approaches; in fact, it enhanced progressive language teaching and highlighted that there is a social purpose in writing. This, however, meant teachers’ knowledge and skills about language in social contexts had to be developed through extensive in-service training and in-class support 2. 7 Research originating from the Disadvantaged Schools Programme Scholars like M artin and Rothery (1986) began to analyse texts using SFL theory.This took the form of linguistic analysis with each text being deconstructed into its structural features, or schematic phases, and then being analysed for its typical language features. Most of these projects aimed to link theory and practice (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). As a result, teachers gained knowledge and an ability to critically analyse the texts that they used in practice. Research identified factual genres such as reports, expositions, discussions, recounts, explanations, and procedures, which could be used in classrooms. Furthermore, as this project progressed, the data were translated into classroom practice using a pedagogical model developed by project members that resulted in a major breakthrough for the classroom, that is, the curriculum cycle or the teaching and learning cycle (Callaghan & Rothery, 1988).The National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research was commissioned in 1990 to evaluate the effectiveness of projects like the Language and Social Power Project and was asked to report on improvements in learner writing as well as on the impact of genre pedagogy on teachers’ knowledge of the social function of language and their ability to assess the effectiveness of learners’ writing (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). The findings of the report highlighted an ‘overwhelmingly’ positive response from participating teachers (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). Teachers praised the in-service and the in-class support of the demonstration lessons as well as the backup support material, both printed and audio-visual. Furthermore, in terms of evaluating the learners’ written texts, it was found that learners from participating schools wrote a broader range of genres, that these included more factual texts, and that these learners had a higher success rate than learners from non-participating schools (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). 2. 9 SFL and the School Writing Curr iculumKress (1994) states that until recently ‘writing has been regarded as an alternative medium of language, giving permanence to utterances’ (pg 7) and attention on writing was thus focussed on mechanical aspects. However, increasing evidence indicates that speech and writing have distinct grammatical and syntactic organisation, and further that writing and speaking occur in distinct social settings which have significant effects on the syntactic and textual structures of speech and writing (Kress, 1993). Literacy in many Western schools presupposes that learners have developed spoken language skills in the relevant language but this may not be the case for second language learners (Gibbons, 2004).As a result, these learners would have even more to learn about writing because learners initially use their knowledge about spoken language to bridge the divide between speaking and writing (Kress 1994). The school writing curriculum and its teachers are then powerful in d eveloping or hindering the writing development of learners in primary school. As discussed above, writing curricula drawing from progressive theories which stress the process of writing over content, see the teacher as a facilitator of writing, and no focus on linguistic rules for speaking or writing could result in English second language learners being denied access to development as writers. Therefore, writing curricula which focus on the teaching of genre are potentially powerful in that they could provide ‘generic power’ to learners. Power to use, interpret, exploit and innovate generic forms is the function of generic knowledge which is accessible only to members of disciplinary communities’ (Bhatia, 2003:67). Accordingly, the teaching of SFL genre approaches and their linguistic frameworks could provide a scaffold for English second language learners to be inducted into social contexts, purposes and linguistic features of both spoken and written dominant d iscourses. Such approaches might lead towards opportunities for equity and access for non-native speakers of English. A writing curriculum rooted in genre theory would have implications for the classroom and the next section discusses some of these implications for pedagogy. 2. 9. 1 SFL Genre in the classroomThe teaching of genre in the classroom requires explicit teaching of language at text level and of the interdependence of language use and context (Paltridge, 2004). Halliday and Hasan (1985) state that SFL deals with language in context: ‘The context of situation, the context in which the text unfolds, is encapsulated in the text, not in a kind of piecemeal fashion, not in the other extreme in a mechanical way, but through a systemic relationship between the social environment on the hand, and the functional organisation of language on the other. If we treat both text and context as semiotic phenomena, as modes of meaning, so to speak, we can get from one to the other in a revealing way. ’ (Pgs 11-12)Such an approach implies that language teachers in primary and secondary schools should not only have English subject knowledge but also understand and have knowledge of linguistically informed genre-based literacy pedagogy. 2. 10 Conclusion This chapter has provided an overview of the three main schools of thought in relation to genre and then focused in more detail on the theoretical perspective which seems to offer the most productive insights for the South African context, Systemic Functional Linguistics. The next chapter describes the methodology I used to investigate the potential of such an approach in one primary school. Bibliography Adams, C. & Artemeva. N. (2002).Writing Instruction in English for Academic (EAP) classes: Introducing second language learners to the Academic Community. In M. 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